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A STRATEGY FOR SCOTLAND'S COAST AND INSHORE WATERS

8. ANNEX 1 - SECTOR ANALYSIS

The following papers were written by individuals representing the relevant sectors and peer reviewed by members of the Scottish Coastal Forum. They are provided to give an understanding of the important issues from the perspective of that Sector.

8.1 AGGREGATE AND MINERAL EXTRACTION

8.1.1 GEOGRAPHIC FOCUS

Onshore a variety of extractive industries have existed in the coastal zone with the potential to impact on the marine environment. Many have ceased to operate but may reoccur if mineral prices increase. The largest was the coal industry with under sea workings in the Firth of Forth and extensive disposal of waste along the shoreline such as at Valleyfield, Fife. Of the active onshore extractions within 5km of the coast, most do not impact the marine environment. However, it is something we should be mindful of and large-scale aggregate sites known as superquarries (extractions greater than 5Mt/yr) such as Glensanda in Morvern involve product transport by sea. Economic constraints and accessibility in terms of water depth and distance to shore mean that almost all offshore mineral resources are inside the 12-mile territorial sea limit. Although metaliferous minerals are restricted to selected areas, offshore aggregates are more ubiquitous and their exploitation will reflect local demand.

Offshore aggregate and mineral extraction is well regulated and to date only a few short-term extraction projects have occurred around Scotland, such as sand for beach replenishment or fill for land reclamation, although a wide range of minerals have been investigated. Within the UK it is an important marine industry of southeast England where markets are close .

8.1.2 SIGNIFICANCE FOR THE STRATEGY

Offshore aggregate and mineral extraction is a potential growth area as onshore sources become exhausted and environmental pressure restricts the development of new onshore sources.

At the moment proposals are subject to the "government view" procedure which is co-ordinated by The Scottish Executive Environmental and Rural Affairs Department. The operation of the "government view procedure" is currently under review.

8.1.3 KEY ISSUES

The main impacts of exploiting offshore minerals include:

• Increased shipping in local area - the development of handling facilities at local ports. This may be limited if aggregates are simply being pumped ashore for infill or beach replenishment.

• Removal of seabed and benthic biota by dredging - the time taken for the new seabed to be re-colonized is unknown.

• Change in bathymetry and seafloor topography - this may induce changes in currents and affect sediment movement at sites some distance from the extraction site and may include the coastline.

• Disposal of waste materials - this will involve both the disposal of waste at sea, in particular fines settling back onto the seabed and waste generated in any onshore processing.

8.1.4 APPROPRIATE MANAGEMENT MECHANISMS,

• Marine spatial planning system.

• Environmental impact assessment - the industry has begun to jointly undertake regional environmental impact assessments before developing new areas.

• Resource assessment, potentially linked to wider marine resource mapping initiatives.

8.1.5 STEPS/ACTIONS NEEDED TO ESTABLISH MECHANISMS

• Obtain baseline data for aggregate resource in Scotland out to 12nm.

• Ensure all Strategic Environmental Assessments are available to all sectors.

• Adoption of a spatial planning system that incorporates the collated SEA information.

8.1.6 DATA/GIS NEEDS

• Detailed seabed sediment and morphology maps, particularly close inshore to assess resources.

• Models of sediment dynamics and current regimes.

• Habitat mapping.

• Strategic Environmental Assessments available on the web for public awareness.

• Common standard of information, reliably collated as spatial planning and cumulative impact issues become prominent.

8.1.7 FRAMEWORK FOR MONITORING PROGRESS

In the event of long-term offshore mineral extraction being sanctioned, monitoring and review of impacts on the benthic environment and the local coastline should be included at least at 5-year intervals.

8.1.8 RELEVANT PLANS AND STRATEGIES

NPPG 13 - Coastal Planning and PAN 53 - Classifying the coast for planning purposes.

NPPG 4 - Land for Mineral Working - gives guidance for onshore production.

8.1.9 LINKS TO CROSS-CUTTING THEMES/OBJECTIVES

• Need for marine spatial planning.

• Broad-scale marine resource mapping.

• Requires strategic assessment of resources.

• Integrated consideration of exploitation (protection of access to aggregate resource) with impacts on coastal benthic fisheries, aquaculture, large-scale developments, such as offshore wind farms.

8.2 COASTAL DEFENCE AND SHORELINE MANAGEMENT

8.2.1 GEOGRAPHIC FOCUS

Coastal defences are mainly associated with areas where urban development lies adjacent to the coastline and where these are threatened by coastal erosion or flooding. Studies in the 1970s recorded coastal erosion as most prevalent in Dumfries and Galloway, Shetland and the Western Isles local authority areas, more recently, sites in Fife, Angus and Aberdeenshire appear to have undergone significant retreat. Coastal flooding is predominantly associated with estuaries, or when strong onshore winds combine with high tidal levels, eg at Largs or Kirkcaldy. Shoreline Management Plans have been/are being completed for parts of the Moray Firth, part of the Berwickshire coast, Fife, East Lothian and Angus.

8.2.2 SIGNIFICANCE FOR THE STRATEGY

Coastal defences are the means to protect coastal developments against the natural processes of coastal erosion and tidal flooding. Around 6% (307 km) of the Scottish mainland coastline has been modified by coastal defences. In estuarine and inner firth areas, flood embankments of earth, rubble and concrete protect land from flooding. On exposed and open coastlines, concrete seawalls and revetments (now rock armour) protect high value assets against erosion. Although the direct value of spending on coastal defence and shoreline management to the Scottish economy is modest, the indirect value of these schemes in protecting property, industry and infrastructure is immense. However, coastal defences may damage the natural heritage through loss of habitat, landform or landscape character and by altering natural coastal sediment movements. Flooding in coastal areas can also be caused by the alteration of hydrology, reducing the ability of freshwater flows to the sea. Added to the issues above, the possible sea-level changes are increasing the debate on land-use within the coastal zone. With a lack of co-ordinated decision-making local decisions on coastal defences can impact areas further along the coast. Strategic decision-making is required to ensure a balanced approach across the whole of Scotland.

8.2.3 KEY ISSUES

• Lack of understanding of flooding/erosion trends (including climate change effects) and ineffective prediction and management of erosion and flood events.

• Incomplete coverage of Shoreline Management Plans (SMPs) to provide a strategic assessment of erosion/flood risk and enable strategic planning of coastal and flood defences.

• Need to adhere more rigorously to coastal planning guidance and prevent development in vulnerable areas.

• Need to adopt more sustainable and flexible approaches to defence/flood management (safeguarding natural heritage interests).

Climate change and sea level rise may increase the occurrence, severity and impact of coastal flooding and erosion events in future (sea level could rise by 23 cm on Scotland's West coast by 2050), but there is still great uncertainty on rates of change and likely effects in different parts of Scotland.

In Scotland, there is no single agency with responsibility for coastal protection and flood defence, no dedicated budget for flood defence, and very many coastal defences are privately owned. This has led to a piecemeal approach to shoreline management. In England and Wales, where there are greater problems with coastal erosion, Shoreline Management Plans (SMPs) have been prepared to provide a strategic approach to the management of coastal erosion. SMPs assess the risks associated with coastal processes of erosion and flooding and present a policy framework to reduce these social, economic, and environmental risks in a sustainable manner. Some Scottish local authorities are starting to prepare SMPs and the development of such plans may usefully be extended to other vulnerable areas of coastline.

There is now a greater recognition of the risks of hard coastal defences to natural coastal processes and habitats. The phenomenon of "coastal squeeze" is leading to loss of habitats like saltmarsh, where rising sea levels are causing erosion, but the habitat is unable to migrate inland due to a fixed sea wall. Environmental policy and legislation in England and Wales now requires greater consideration of environmentally sensitive management options than formerly, eg beach recharge, managed realignment (moving defences inland) or relocation of assets at risk, but Scottish policy guidance still fails to reflect this updated approach.

8.2.4 APPROPRIATE MANAGEMENT MECHANISMS

• Carry out co-ordinated and targeted research, monitoring and modelling of coastline trends, implement effective flood prediction systems and disseminate results appropriately to decision makers, coastal managers and general public.

• Endorse the principle of strategic, planned management of erosion and flood risk; prepare SMPs based on natural divisions of the shoreline (sediment cells) for vulnerable areas and update existing plans.

• Integrate SMP considerations into broader spatial planning framework (zonation, locational guidance, protected areas, etc.), taking into account appropriate development locations and the need for coastal/flood protection and considering alternatives.

• Ensure planning guidance contained in NPPG13 is followed (prevent development in areas where new defences would be needed) and ensure that revised policy guidance gives more emphasis to alternatives to hard engineering solutions.

• Raise awareness of dynamic processes and how to work with them, through information, training and best practice guidance.

• Identify and pursue sustainable funding for SMP production and alternative approaches to coastal defence (eg agri-environment funds for managed realignment).

8.2.5 STEPS/ACTIONS NEEDED TO ESTABLISH MECHANISMS

• Research and define areas at risk from coastal flooding and/or erosion.

• Develop a coastal environmental change network.

• Recognise that climate change is caused by global factors but take steps to act locally to raise awareness, reduce impacts and lobby for political change where possible.

• Assess integrity and adequacy of existing defences.

• Provide clear best practice guidance for preparation of SMPs and promote their use in key areas.

• Consider need for revised planning guidance.

• Identify areas most suited to managed realignment and other alternative approaches.

• Lobby for funding to support implementation in such areas.

8.2.6 DATA/GIS NEEDS

• Identification and mapping of areas at risk of coastal flooding and of coastal erosion.

• Structural survey of coastal defences in public ownership and assessment of effective life-span.

• Periodic refinement of UK Climate Change predictions for Scotland.

• Establishment of Scottish Coastal Environmental Change Network and/or periodic collation and publication of pertinent environmental data (sea levels, wind/wave climate, water temperature, flood events).

8.2.7 FRAMEWORK FOR MONITORING PROGRESS

• Identification of the proportion of developed coastline.

• Number of sediment cells/sub-cells covered by SMPs.

• Level of grant-aid provided and proportion involving alternative approaches.

• Number of LA maps depicting areas at risk.

• Insurance claims against coastal flooding/erosion.

• Environmental parameters, eg sea level rise, wave height, wind strength and direction.

• Structural integrity of publicly owned coastal defences.

8.2.8 RELEVANT PLANS AND STRATEGIES

• Planning guidance (NPPG 7, 13) commends actions to Local Authorities for managing flood and erosion risk.

• Scottish Executive is currently consulting on new policy covering Planning and Flooding (Scottish Planning Policy SPP7), which would replace NPPG7. This still fails to stress the need for soft engineering options.

• SNH has published a manual with guidance on options for erosion management "A Guide to Managing Coastal Erosion in Beach/Dune Systems".

• Key guidance on SMP preparation is "Shoreline Management Plans: A Guide for Coastal Defence Authorities" (Defra 2001) (currently in process of revision, consultation paper "Procedural guidance for production of SMP's: Interim guidance. May 2003".

• UK Biodiversity Action Plan target for saltmarsh.

• Scottish Executive "Think Globally, Act locally" initiative.

8.2.9 LINKS TO CROSS-CUTTING THEMES/OBJECTIVES

• Changing hydrographic information and its effect on shipping, harbour and docking facilities.

• Loss of cultural and archaeological sites.

• "Hard" effects on loss of landscapes and habitats.

• Situation of new and existing power stations.

• Effects on access to coastal paths, natural and cultural sites.

• Integrated spatial planning to identify areas at risk from flooding and to assist in the management of flood risk.

8.3 COMMERCIAL FISHERIES

8.3.1 GEOGRAPHIC FOCUS

There are two contrasting "faces" to the Scottish fishing industry. The North East Coast and Shetland contain the major concentration of large scale, offshore fishing capacity. This is based on a relatively small number of large ports (Aberdeen, Peterhead, Fraserburgh, Banff and Buckie) that together are responsible for the major share of Scottish landings by volume and value, derived principally from whitefish (cod, haddock, whiting) along with pelagic fishing for species such as herring and mackerel Whilst there are also deep sea fisheries operated out of Lochinver, Kinlochbervie, and Mallaig, in general and by contrast, the West coast is characterised by inshore fishing activity. Here the fisheries sector is dependent on a relatively low volume of landings of high value (mainly shellfish such as crabs, lobster, Nephrops) and is dispersed among a large number of small ports. Cockles are also harvested in certain areas of Scotland, by a variety of means.

8.3.2 SIGNIFICANCE FOR THE STRATEGY

Scotland's fishing industry constitutes an important and distinctive sector of the national economy. Landings by Scottish-based vessels in 2000 amounted to 521,000 tonnes valued at 330 million, roughly equivalent to 0.5% of Scotland's GDP; the harvesting sector employs around 6,900 persons out of a total labour force of 2.4 million (0.3%). It is at the regional and local levels that the industry makes its most significant contributions to the economy. The North east contains the greatest concentration of fishing employment in the UK and a substantial share of associated industries such as fish processing. Despite this importance, there are major challenges if the economic and social benefits of the fishing industry are to be maintained (see below). There are two main challenges of significance to this Strategy - helping the industry to recover from the current difficulties it faces, ie ensuring the long-term profitability and prosperity of the fishing industry, whilst addressing the short-term problems inherent in taking measures that will enable the fish stocks and reducing conflict within Scotland's coastal waters.

In recent years, advice from fisheries scientists has shown that several of Scotland's key stocks of commercial fish are in major difficulties. 16 out of 21 Scottish fish stocks are outside their "safe biological limits", meaning that their populations are in danger of collapse. There are many factors that have contributed to the current crisis that Scotland's white fish sector in particular finds itself in, including the failure of the EU Common Fisheries Policy to reduce over capacity despite the significant reduction in fleet capacity brought about by two rounds of decommissioning. Whatever the cause, components of Scotland's fishing industry find themselves in crisis.

The challenge for ICZM is not just helping the industry survive, but laying the foundations for a return to prosperity. This will require taking a longer term view of fisheries management that takes the pressure off key stocks in the short term to allow them to recover and rebuild to levels that support higher and sustained catches. This strategy has a role to play in helping achieve healthy fish stocks that continue to support fishing communities.

8.3.3 KEY ISSUES

The main issues to be addressed are:

• Marine fisheries are a declining sector of the Scottish economy reflecting in part the deteriorating condition of key whitefish stocks.

• Declining catches for some fisheries and consequent declines in employment and associated incomes in fisheries dependent communities.

• Continued mismatch between fishing effort/ fishing capacity and the available fish stocks.

• Need for restoration of the resources (fish stocks) and their supporting ecosystem.

• Encouraging the creation of opportunities for diversification out of the fisheries sector.

The other major issue is reducing conflict within the fisheries sector and between the fisheries sector and other users of Scotland's coastal waters. In the inshore waters, conflict is arising between fisheries using different gear types (between static and mobile gear) and between fisheries from different locations (local versus nomadic fisheries). If offshore stocks continue to decline, there is the potential displacement of fishing activity from offshore to inshore areas and increased conflict. The specific issues for this strategy are:

• Reducing conflict between different fisheries.

• Managing competition between fisheries and other users of the coastal zone, such as aquaculture and offshore renewable energy generation.

• Addressing the lack of integration between the planning and operation of fisheries and other users of the coastal zone.

• Reducing conflict between fisheries and biodiversity/natural heritage interests.

There are also some concerns about the ability of the current system of management and enforcement to meet the needs of the fishing industry and stakeholders whilst promoting sustainable fisheries. The main issues are:

• Regulatory system seen to be complex, unfit for purpose and remote from needs of local stakeholders (fishermen).

• Lack of resources, lack of data and poor quality data for management, monitoring and enforcement.

• Balancing local management aspirations with industry's traditional expectations of Government.

• Enabling the fishing industry and wider stakeholders to have more of a say in fisheries management decisions.

8.3.4 APPROPRIATE MANAGEMENT MECHANISMS

There is the need to integrate the management of inshore fisheries with other users of the coast. There is also a need to plan and manage fisheries in a forward looking, long-term, strategic and objective-driven manner. In developing such management proposals for fisheries, importance must be placed in allowing stakeholder driven management. In the short term the use of regulating and several orders could be considered. The following should be regarded as key coastal management tools for delivering these aims and, more generally, moving towards sustainable fisheries in Scotland. Marine spatial planning that includes the spatial zoning of activities like fisheries alongside developments such as aquaculture. This would allow the integrated forward planning of fisheries alongside other uses of marine resources and the coastal environment, and conservation of important habitats and species,

• Stakeholder involvement in management through the establishment of regional management committees to represent fisheries interests in relevant coastal management fora and in relevant decision making processes, but also to develop proposals for inshore fisheries management in consultation with other stakeholder groups and coastal sectoral interests. These fora would have a key role in conflict resolution and building consensus on appropriate inshore fisheries management measures.

• Investigation of management systems that allow taking a long-term and ecosystem approach, including fisheries restoration areas and no-take zones.

8.3.5 STEPS/ACTIONS NEEDED TO ESTABLISH MECHANISMS

• Develop and introduce marine spatial planning.

• Establish (and resource) regional management bodies to represent fisheries interests.

• Develop and implement a strategic framework for inshore fisheries that not only recognises the value of Scotland's fishing fleet and promotes its sustainability/viability, but promotes the integration of fisheries planning and management with other coastal sectors.

• Ensure fisheries interests are consultees in all marine/coastal development proposals, such as aquaculture and offshore renewable energy generation.

• Undertake research to underpin the introduction of the ecosystem approach environmentally sensitive fishing practice and stock restoration measures.

• Promote diversification in fisheries dependent communities.

• Review and revise inshore fisheries legislation as appropriate to facilitate the above actions.

8.3.6 DATA/GIS NEEDS

• Mapping the distribution of key fish stocks and fisheries.

• Mapping key spawning/nursery grounds.

8.3.7 FRAMEWORK FOR MONITORING PROGRESS

• Proportion of inshore stocks within safe biological limits.

• Incidence/extent of accredited sustainable local fisheries.

• Incidence/extent of local fisheries management schemes/initiatives.

• Coverage of approved, integrated coastal zone plans with a fisheries element.

• Incidence/extent of joint fishing industry/marine nature conservation initiatives.

• Profit per boat fishing in inshore waters.

• Percentage unemployment in fisheries-dependent areas.

• Value of catches from inshore waters.

8.3.8 RELEVANT PLANS AND STRATEGIES

• Scottish Executive Strategic Framework for the Scottish Sea Fishing Industry.

• RSPB/SNH inshore fisheries research project.

• 2002 CFP Framework regulation - eg regional advisory councils, ecosystem approach.

• Prime Ministers Strategy Unit Fisheries project (2004) Net benefits - A Sustainable and Profitable Future for UK fishing.

• Royal Society of Edinburgh (2004) Inquiry into the future of the Scottish Fishing Industry.

• The Scottish Inshore Fisheries Advisory Group have developed a draft strategy for inshore fisheries management which attempts to balance environmental and economic considerations, and which also proposes a framework of area management groups that would place fishermen at the centre of decision-making process, and which involves other stakeholders with an interest in the coast.

8.3.9 LINKS TO CROSS-CUTTING THEMES/OBJECTIVES

• integration between the planning and management of different sectors;

• integration of sectoral strategies at national level;

• forward and spatial planning of marine/coastal activities and uses, as well as developments;

• stakeholder involvement in decision-making and management;

• restoring coastal and marine resources.

8.4 CULTURAL HERITAGE AND ARCHAEOLOGY

8.4.1 GEOGRAPHIC FOCUS

In some areas, such as Orkney, Shetland, Argyll and the Western Isles, the remains of ancient settlements are a highly visible component of coastal landscapes. Two of the four World Heritage sites in Scotland have a strong coastal component. These are St Kilda, the designation for which was extended to include its cultural heritage, and the Heart of Neolithic Orkney which includes the coastal village site at Skara Brae and the rings of standing stones at Stenness and Brogar by the brackish-water Loch of Stenness. Scotland's coastline is also host to many visitor attractions with a cultural heritage basis. These include historic ships such as the Discovery in Dundee, and historic harbours like Stonehaven, coastal castles like Culzean and lighthouses like Kinnaird Head. Some museums focus on the coastal zone, for instance the maritime museum at Irvine or the fishery museums at Anstruther. Most museums in coastal towns include a large number of exhibits related to the coastal heritage. Coastal walks such as the Fife Coastal Path often include archaeological monuments within their itineraries.

8.4.2 SIGNIFICANCE FOR THE STRATEGY

Many historic and archaeological sites are irreplaceable assets which need to be safeguarded or maintained in situ. An archaeological site cannot move, and once lost, cannot be reclaimed. In many cases, the only feasible response to an activity or development proposal which threatens to damage the site is the collection of as much information as possible before it is lost forever. Over 80% of the coastline remains inadequately surveyed for its features of historic and archaeological interest and value, although recent surveys have been undertaken in the Inner Hebrides and the (greater) Clyde Estuary.

The coast of Scotland has many of the most remarkable cultural and archaeological remains in Britain, from ancient hunter-gatherer middens to World War II defences. Spectacular castles, ancient settlements, brochs, lighthouses, historic harbours and important wreck sites are high profile tourist attractions, many of which reflect Scotland's dependence on the sea throughout the past. Entire ancient landscapes, important evidence about ancient environments, and thousands of other archaeological sites are also known. As important, many artefacts, sites and landscapes probably remain to be discovered.

Coastal erosion is one of the two greatest threats to the cultural heritage of Scotland (the other is agriculture). The recent study of Scottish coastal cells identified longshore sediment transport as a key controlling factor in coastal erosion has shown that there is a general deficit in new sediments to protect coastlines.

Many sites, both known and, as yet, unknown are very vulnerable to erosion. Recent Coastal Zone Assessment Surveys, mostly sponsored by Historic Scotland (HS), have covered around 20% of the Scottish coastline. The surveys recorded the geomorphology and erosion visible at the time of survey as well as the archaeological landscapes themselves. In many cases, the surveys quadrupled the number of sites known. Of the 6600 sites located, 37% were vulnerable to coastal erosion. In the storm-ridden, subsiding, northern and western islands, 53% of the coast surveyed was recorded as either "eroding" or "eroding or stable" However, in the south and east of Scotland, the figure was 48% which is not significantly different. In other words, when the surveys were in progress, half of the coast looked as if it was either eroding or might be eroding. It is thus highly likely that many as-yet-unknown sites are being damaged.

Coastal development is covered by the planning guidelines and existing legislation. One of the conclusions of the Fife SMP study was that currently available methodologies for giving archaeological sites an economic value (which will influence decision makers) are contentious, and probably inadequate. The construction of defences to protect other coastal assets may not take account of the cultural heritage and can have an adverse effect on important remains. Marine dredging and submarine development can destroy archaeological sites, but records of underwater archaeological sites are very patchy.

8.4.3 KEY ISSUES

• Coastal erosion and shoreline management in the vicinity of key archaeological and cultural heritage sites close to the coast (including the need for better understanding of the role of geomorphological processes in erosion of such sites).

• Lack of basic survey work to assess the extent of archaeological interest.

• Loss of vernacular building styles in some coastal areas due to weak development control or inadequate levels of grant aid to bridge the gap between the style of housing etc which local people can afford and the style required to sustain the built heritage.

• Design of port and harbour facilities - development of small ports and harbours to increase their throughput capacity, or to improve their road access and security may sometimes reduce their value in built heritage and amenity terms.

8.4.4 APPROPRIATE MANAGEMENT MECHANISMS

• Coastal defence and Shoreline Management Plans: In the regions where they exist, local authority archaeologists play an important role in the creation of Shoreline Management Plans. RCAHMS and Historic Scotland also give advice and HS has contributed funding to the Fife and East Lothian SMPs. Most parts of Scotland's coastline, however, are not the subject of a voluntary SMP.

• Development Plans: Coastal development (including power generation, fishing, oil/gas, ports and marine transportation): Two codes of practice have been drawn up dealing with development. These are: British Archaeologists and Developers Liaison Group (BALDG) Code of Practice, and Confederation of British Industry Archaeological Investigations Code of Practice for Mineral Operators in Scotland. The success of these approaches needs to be reviewed and assessed.

• Establishment of consultation mechanisms, to ensure that both national and local archaeological advice is sought during the development and assessment of coastal development proposals and planning applications.

• Continued development of surveys of distribution, and research into and conservation needs, of coastal and inshore submerged archaeological sites and features of interest, and mechanisms to ensure the interpretation, promotion, dissemination and accessibility of relevant data and information to user community.

• Design briefs for development of coastal settlements with significant built heritage value.

8.4.5 STEPS/ACTIONS NEEDED TO ESTABLISH MECHANISMS

a) Dissemination of information

Improve access for all concerned to information on the distribution and conservation requirements of, and threats to, historic and archaeological features of Scotland's coasts and inshore waters.

b) Community Involvement

• Encourage greater action by local groups; the coastal heritage belongs as much to local communities as to regional and national organisations.

• Provide support for local community projects and encourage local groups to establish links with their Local Authority Archaeology service and other archaeologists and specialists.

c) Formulation of priorities, standards and values

• Compile national and regional agendas within which further work must fit.

• Develop systems to establish values and priorities for archaeological sites and landscapes, making them commensurable with those based on economic factors.

• Draw up an annual list of research themes and encourage funding organisations to devote part of their funds to supporting such projects.

• Develop systematic classification schemes to provide quantifiable evidence for broad regional differences.

d) Aerial surveys

• Undertake analysis of existing air photographs and commission new aerial surveys, working with researchers from other sectors to reduce costs and increase research value.

• Use Airborne Remote Sensing and other new techniques to provide accurate terrain models as baselines for erosion and sea level rise and to locate structures.

8.4.6 DATA/GIS NEEDS

Fieldwork

• Survey the 80% of the coast not yet properly investigated in archaeological terms.

• Conduct selected repeat surveys every five or 10 years to assess rates of erosion.

• Use information gathered from documentary sources, field surveys and focal studies to allow planning for excavation well in advance of destruction by erosion.

• Ensure adequate balance between excavation and post-excavation analysis and conservation when planning any project likely to produce many finds and associated records.

• Research into Holocene and future geomorphological processes which affect Scotland's coastlines.

• Research into long-term climate change and the marine environment of the north Atlantic and North Sea to enable the construction of more accurate prediction models for future climate changes.

Underwater work

Use geophysical survey techniques to produce better information on wrecks, submerged post-glacial landscapes and other underwater remains.

8.4.7 FRAMEWORK FOR MONITORING PROGRESS

This could include:

• Kilometres of coastline surveyed to the agreed HS standard or better.

• Number of new high-significance vulnerable coastal sites protected or excavated per year.

• Number of completed excavations of vulnerable high-significance coastal sites published per year.

• Number of Shorewatch groups complying with a minimum standard of recording and reporting.

• Number of community groups involved in coastal projects.

• Number of consciousness-raising publications and events.

8.4.8 RELEVANT PLANS AND STRATEGIES

• National Planning Policy Guideline NPPG 5 - Archaeology and Planning.

• Planning Advice Note PAN 42 - Archaeology - the Planning Process and Scheduled Monument Procedures.

• NPPG 18 - Planning and the Historic Environment.

• NPPG 13 - Coastal Planning - and PAN 53 - Classifying the Coast for Planning Purposes.

• European Convention for the Protection of the Archaeological Heritage (Revised, Valetta, 1992 Council of Europe).

• Shoreline Management Plans.

• National Trust for Scotland "Turning the Tide" appeal.

• British Archaeologists and Developers Liaison Group (BALDG) Code of Practice.

• Confederation of British Industry - Archaeological Investigations: Code of Practice for Mineral Operators in Scotland.

• Shorewatch project.

8.4.9 LINKS TO CROSS-CUTTING THEMES/OBJECTIVES

• Need for integration of coastal archaeological protection, including statutory requirements and consultation arrangements, into framework for managing development on coasts and in inshore waters.

• Would benefit from spatial planning framework and more comprehensive coverage of coastline by shoreline management plans.

• Need for information base to be up to date, and readily accessible to decision-makers, developers, coastal land managers and the public.

8.5 MARINE AQUACULTURE

8.5.1 GEOGRAPHIC FOCUS

Scotland's fish farming and shellfish farming industries are mainly located in the more sheltered sea lochs of the West Highlands and Islands and in the voes and sounds of Shetland and Orkney. Outlying areas for these activities include Loch Roag on the West coast of Lewis, Loch Eriboll on the north coast, the Moray Firth, the Kyles of Bute, and Arran.

As the technology for fish farming becomes more sophisticated and installations become more robust, more exposed locations in the outer lochs are becoming more viable. The economics of the industry currently mitigate against the development of very large installations on distant offshore sites and the health and safety issues associated with this would need to be overcome. However, as the opportunities for expansion in sheltered waters gradually diminish, the offshore option may well become more attractive. Experiments with such structures are already being conducted in Norway. There is currently a national policy presumption against expansion of finfish farming on the north and east coasts of the mainland, primarily as a precaution to safeguard the major salmon rivers there. However with the fish farming industry moving to diversify away from salmon this policy presumption could at some stage disappear.

8.5.2 SIGNIFICANCE FOR THE STRATEGY

Aquaculture has been an important force for development in the Highlands and Islands since the 1980s and it has helped to sustain or rejuvenate many remote coastal communities. The bulk of its investment continues to be in these areas. The cultural impact has also been important in that it has brought a shift in emphasis in the way we use our marine resources: from extensive capture fisheries to intensive culture and environmental management in selected areas. It has also however, been controversial with some of the most sensitive coastlines in Europe in terms of landscape, tourism, and wildlife interest, the same areas for aquaculture development, it has sometimes displaced or appeared to threaten certain other interests and the planning and regulatory framework has been slow to develop. Marine aquaculture, perhaps more than any other industry, provides a rationale for ICZM because its activities straddle the coast and near-inshore waters and impact on a range of other interests. Also the small wild salmonid populations in the generally short west coast rivers are inherently vulnerable.

The industry has concentrated mainly on salmon production to date but the long-term prospects for species diversification, technical innovation, and market growth are good. As operation in more exposed sites becomes feasible, and with more sophisticated systems for managing nutrient budgets and water quality, the aquaculture presence is likely to extend across a wider area of Scotland's inshore waters - including those off the east coast - over the next 25 years.

8.5.3 KEY ISSUES

The primary issue is:

How and where to accommodate expansion of aquaculture and/or species diversification so the industry can maintain its competitiveness without prejudice to:

(a) other income-generating activities in the coastal zone;

(b) the environmental assets for which the Scottish coast is renowned.

Subsidiary issues to this are:

• which types and scales of aquaculture activity to promote in different areas around the Scottish coast;

• the prospects and issues in connection with development of aquaculture further offshore and on the North, East, and possibly South coasts;

• designs for low-impact aquaculture installations (finfish farming, shellfish farming, polyculture, seabed ranching) to make a wider range of locations and higher production levels feasible;

• the need to improve modelling capability and the monitoring framework (eg by development of sea-loch-specific models) so that the scale and combination of aquaculture operations can be manipulated in a sustainable manner.

To achieve the optimal distribution of aquaculture activity requires a combination of encouragement for expansion in some areas and presumption against development in others. In some areas it will involve holding production and/or the scale of installations at its current level. In others it may be appropriate to change production to a different species. In a few areas it may be necessary to reduce the scale of activity or relocate it elsewhere. Improved designs for aquaculture installations may help to overcome some of the problems associated with visual impact, discharge of waste, and predator control .

Other key issues are:

• the need to reduce the level of controversy associated with finfish farming and build consensus on how to develop and accommodate aquaculture;

• the detailed design and implementation of the new statutory planning system for marine aquaculture;

• the need for better protection for the aquaculture industries from harmful algal blooms (HABs).

Finfish farming is an important area of economic activity and R&D in many rural areas. Yet the expansion of finfish farming continues to be controversial and the subject divides many Highland communities. Some interests (eg game fishing, wilderness recreation) continue to feel aggrieved at their lack of protection from an industry which they feel is expanding incrementally and relentlessly into new areas at their expense. The forward planning framework is still poorly developed in many areas and there is still a heavy reliance on integration being achieved via decisions on a case-by-case basis. The costs and complexity involved in meeting statutory requirements for Environmental Assessment are prohibitive, with many of the cases involving finfish farms being protracted and this ties down resources which could otherwise be spent on developing a forward planning framework to help pre-empt such conflicts of interest.

Scotland still lacks an overall strategy for the development of aquaculture and its integration with other interests which enjoys the support of the public at large. The recently produced "Strategic Framework for Scottish Aquaculture" was conceived in close consultation with the industry but consultation with wider interests and the general public was much more limited. The Framework document is supported by the industry majors (predominantly finfish farming interests) but buy-in to the strategy by interest's outwith this group but affected by its activities (fishermen, game fishing interests) tends to be limited. Achievement of some of the action points within the specified timescales will also require new resources to be found.

The maintenance, and in some areas improvement, of water quality standards is fundamental to the prospects for expansion of aquaculture and the competitiveness of the shellfish farming industry in particular. This means removal of sources of toxins (anthropogenic influences), management of water chemistry, and development of the toxin depuration capability in shellfish growing areas.

8.5.4 APPROPRIATE MANAGEMENT MECHANISMS

The following should be regarded as key coastal management tools for ensuring that aquaculture development in Scotland is sustainable. Some of these are already in place. Some are inadequately developed or limited in coverage. Some are absent.

• Extension of statutory planning powers to embrace aquaculture installations in inshore waters (out to 3nm) - [the Government announced its intention to do this in 1997. New regulations are expected in 2005]. In Orkney and Shetland the Works licensing scheme set up for the control of oil and gas developments has been extensively used for marine aquaculture.

• Sector-specific (possibly even species-specific) locational guidance at national level - this exists but has been through a number of incarnations, none of which have proved very stable. The latest version is now more narrowly based than before and partial in its geographic coverage. It should cover all Scotland's coastal areas which have or could conceivably see aquaculture development and it should be properly integrated with NPPG 13 (Coastal Planning) but currently it does neither. The Scottish Executive does however intend to produce a new NPPG and PAN on aquaculture in 2005 as part of the process of bringing aquaculture consents under planning control.

• Generic design guidance for aquaculture installations - to improve the quality of physical development proposals and to avoid conflicts with the landscape interest [in place].

• Sector-specific operational guidance - to avoid or minimize undesirable impacts on water quality, wild fish stocks, and wildlife generally and to avoid conflicts of interest with other coastal stakeholders [in place].

• Integrated coastal zone plans at local level - these should be at least sector-specific (aquaculture framework plans) but preferably multi-sectoral to allocate space for different activities in a rational way and to pre-empt conflicts of interest [So far aquaculture framework plans have only been produced for parts of Highland. No multi-sectoral ICZ plans have been prepared yet though there are now moves to develop them in Highland, Shetland and the Western Isles].

8.5.5 STEPS/ACTIONS NEEDED TO ESTABLISH MECHANISMS

• establish inter-agency working group to review the national locational guidance for aquaculture;

• establish liaison group for LA coastal planners in the Highlands & Islands to exchange experience and ideas on forward planning and development control in the inshore marine area [an exploratory meeting was held in February 2004 as a response to one of the action points in the "Strategic Framework for Scottish Aquaculture". This is likely to be followed up on at least an occasional basis];

• practical Scottish Executive support for pilot projects to develop ICZ plans in selected areas;

• introduce design competitions for environmentally-friendly aquaculture installations;

• formal legislative transfer of planning powers from the Crown Estate to local authorities.

8.5.6 DATA/GIS NEEDS

Basic information on individual aquaculture leases is held by the Crown Estate and copied to local authorities and others on request. Statistics on production and employment on finfish and shellfish farms are compiled annually by the Fisheries Research Service but tend to be aggregated to quite large areas.

Basic, up-to-date information on development consents for finfish and shellfish farms (boundaries, leaseholder, type of operation, whether site currently in use or not, permitted maximum gear, lease expiry date) should be made accessible, where possible, to agencies and the public via the Internet.

The annual production and employment statistics for marine aquaculture should be made available by local authority area.

8.5.7 FRAMEWORK FOR MONITORING PROGRESS

• coverage of approved aquaculture framework plans and ICZ plans;

• number and percentage of uncontested seabed applications for marine aquaculture development consent;

• production and employment levels;

• reduced adverse press coverage of aquaculture;

• improvements in the environmental design and performance of aquaculture installations;

• reduction in environmental effects;

• extent and proportion of shellfish production sites achieving class "A" status.

8.5.8 RELEVANT PLANS AND STRATEGIES

• NPPG 13: "Coastal Planning".

• the Scottish Executive's "Strategic Framework for Scottish Aquaculture".

• the Scottish Executive's "Locational Guidelines for the Authorisation of Marine Fish Farms in Scottish Waters" and "Advice Note: Marine Fish Farming and the Environment".

• SNH/the Crown Estate/Scottish Quality Salmon - "Marine Aquaculture and the Landscape".

• Highland Council's Aquaculture Framework Plans.

8.5.9 LINKS TO CROSS-CUTTING THEMES/OBJECTIVES

• integration of sectoral strategies at national level;

• hierarchical system of coastal plans and strategies;

• focus resources for coastal plans where the need is greatest;

• establish ICZ plans in appropriate areas to minimise conflicts of interest;

• improve coastal water quality to "Good" ecological status wherever this is appropriate and feasible.

8.6 MARINE AND COASTAL NATURAL HERITAGE

8.6.1 GEOGRAPHICAL FOCUS

Scotland's marine and coastal natural heritage is extensive and complex. In the West, sheltered sea lochs such as Loch nam Madadh (North Uist) provide a stark contrast to the exposed and rocky shores encountered on the open coast. In the East, the predominantly low-lying coastline, dominated by dune- fringed sandy beaches, such as areas of Aberdeenshire, is indented by the Firths of Moray, Tay and Forth. There are also 800 islands, including the towering cliffs in Orkney and Shetland and the broad machair plains of the Uists. Large sections of the coast have an international reputation for their landscape qualities of wildness, tranquillity and natural beauty.

The coast and inshore waters also support nationally and internationally important populations of marine mammals, such as grey and common seals and dolphins (bottlenose, white-sided, common and Rissos), and outstanding concentrations of seabirds. The deep sheltered waters in the sea lochs and the more exposed waters around the islands of the west coast are warmed by the North Atlantic Drift and have a rich biodiversity of seabed fauna and flora. The cold, shallower muddy North Sea has dense populations of invertebrates, key to supporting fish populations.

8.6.2 SIGNIFICANCE FOR THE STRATEGY

Scotland's marine natural heritage is visually spectacular and varied but remains largely hidden from sight from most of us. The coastal zone and the seas that surround Scotland support a range of activities and industries and these human activities place demands on the coasts and seas, affecting ecological integrity, landscape and seascape quality, and recreational value. Shipping moves over 80% of the world's commodities and transfers approximately 3 to 5 billion tonnes of ballast water internationally each year. Ballast water is absolutely essential to the safe and efficient operation of modern shipping, providing balance and stability to un-laden ships. However, it may also pose a serious ecological, economic and health threat when this ballast water contains marine life. In the UK, there are documented cases of alien species becoming established in marine systems and publications such as those on non-native marine species in British waters are useful collations on data on this subject.

Scotland's coast and inshore waters support a rich variety of landforms, habitats and species, There are also still significant stretches to be surveyed and many more species yet to be discovered.

Both residents and visitors alike enjoy the dramatic coastal landscape and beautiful seascape of Scotland's coast and islands, and the qualities of wildness associated with some stretches of isolated coastline. This contributes to the quality of life and plays an important part in the Scottish tourist industry. Wildlife tourism alone now employs up to 3000 people (Visit Scotland 2002). There are also other forms of employment that depend on the coastal natural heritage, including local nature conservation management (eg wardens of coastal nature reserves) and research (eg a marine research station at Millport). Employment is often located in rural areas, and this can contribute to the local economy.

The natural coastal resource is also culturally and historically significant. Traces of early settlements are evident in the landscape today, such as the development of coastal crofting communities in the north and west and the more extensive developments in the Firths. The resource is also valuable for biological productivity, coastal defence, and recreational activities.

ANNEX 1 - SECTOR ANALYSIS

8.6.3 KEY ISSUES

• climate change, including sea level rises and coastal squeeze;

• a decline in fish stocks and other marine and coastal biodiversity from human resource demands;

• land-based sources of marine pollution;

• land use changes, physical alteration/destruction of marine and terrestrial habitat;

• introduction of invasive marine species into new environments by ships' ballast water, attached to ships' hulls and via other vectors;

• lack of good spatial data and ecological information on marine resources and inter-linkages, which can lead to a risk of inadequate environmental appraisal;

• need to develop wider recognition of the value of the natural coastal resource on a monetary; sustainable economic development, culture, tourism and recreation, and non-monetary; biodiversity and quality of life, level.

8.6.4 APPROPRIATE MANAGEMENT MECHANISMS

• An overarching national policy framework and duty of care for the maritime environment.

• Better integration of sectoral strategies (eg for aquaculture, renewable energy Agriculture and Forestry) with NPPG 13 (Coastal Planning) and NPPG 14 (Natural Heritage).

• Prepare (or update as appropriate) management prescriptions for all designated landscapes at national and regional level to provide clear management objectives.

• Adoption of the precautionary approach and polluters-pays principles for developments on the coast.

• The use of locational guidance to direct developments/sectoral activity to areas best suited.

• Strategic Environmental Assessments to be undertaken for particular growth sectors - eg renewables, oil and gas.

• Research to address gaps in knowledge and spatial information on marine resources.

• Encourage sustainable fisheries management and good coastal water quality.

• Appropriate management for protected areas and those with special or complex requirements, eg Moray Firth Partnership facilitating the Moray Firth SAC for Bottlenose Dolphins.

8.6.5 STEPS/ACTIONS NEEDED TO ESTABLISH MECHANISMS

• Encourage the wider use of managed realignment and soft coastal defences.

• Quantify the socio-economic benefits of a high quality coastal and marine natural resource (eg through tourism, jobs in the natural heritage) and agree a process to quantify non-monetary values associated with the coast.

• Develop a system of regional coastal plans where marine activities and development can be considered and planned in light of best available environmental information.

• Develop a suite of marine protected areas for Scotland building on current work in this field.

• Improve our understanding of marine ecosystems and landscape/seascape character through greater research. This will facilitate decision-making using an eco-system based approach.

• Return inshore commercial fish stocks to productive levels to ensure benefits for coastal communities and manage fish stocks and shell fisheries sustainably without unduly compromising natural heritage interests.

• Promote better awareness of the coasts fragility, including the landscape/seascape through awareness campaigns and partnership working.

• Encourage Local Authorities to identify areas of remote and undeveloped coast.

• Develop guidelines on the statutory importance of the seascape value of NSAs and other designated landscapes and explore how to make management mechanisms for NSAs more effective.

• Strengthen measures to improve water quality and reduce the threats from diffuse pollution.

• Develop guidance on the location and design of coastal developments, which specifically affect the coastal environment and landscape character.

• Develop a better mechanism for partnership working or a Forum where marine sectoral interests and communities can be heard.

8.6.6 DATA/GIS NEEDS

1. Baseline data for rates of bycatch, bird count data, etc.

2. Better survey work of deep-water species - range and distribution.

3. Better spatial data of key coastal species and habitats.

4. Distribution and scale of local, regional and national landscape designations.

8.6.7 FRAMEWORK FOR MONITORING PROGRESS

• Ecosystem/Environmental Quality Indicators - water quality (P, N in water); toxins in fish (heavy metals, pesticides and PCBs); rates of by-catch (mammals, seabirds); recovery of fish assemblages; bird counts;

• % of coast covered by ICZM plans;

• number of new studies/research reports published in relation to identified gaps in the Strategy in relation to nature conservation and landscape needs;

• proportion of designated coastal landscapes with management prescriptions prepared;

• mapping of key coastal wild land resources and their incorporation in national, regional, and local planning documents.

8.6.8 RELEVANT PLANS/STRATEGIES

• "Marine Aquaculture and the Landscape" (SNH, CE, SQS).

• Scottish Biodiversity strategy - (linking to local biodiversity action plans and local coastal partnerships, LAs, Scottish Executive, SNH, and SEPA).

• Landscape Character Assessments (SNH) and Development Plans (LA).

• windfarm landscape capacity studies (SNH, LAs) - pilot studies.

• Seascape study (SNH).

• SNH Natural Heritage Futures.

• Bergen/OSPAR.

8.6.9 LINKS TO CROSS-CUTTING THEMES/OBJECTIVES

• Better integration of nature conservation/landscape objectives with other development plans.

• Better spatial planning and data collection to identify areas suitable for development and clear strategic identification of planning constraints.

• Potential significant threats to the resource from climate change.

8.7 MILITARY ACTIVITY

8.7.1 GEOGRAPHIC FOCUS

The Ministry of Defence (MoD) has numerous sites in the coastal zone around Scotland, from substantial Naval bases, RAF stations and Army training areas, to storage depots, communication sites and testing and evaluation establishments. By dint of history, the majority of MoD landholdings lie within one mile of the high water mark, which support some 50 establishments.

Coastal waters are used for national training exercises and also with allied nations. These can occur both within the 12-mile and 200-mile zones. These activities can have a tri-service involvement and include coastal landings and land-based exercise. Local communities and interest groups are consulted as part of the exercise-planning programme.

A variety of training and operational activities occur in the inshore area that may require the public to be temporarily excluded for safety reasons. The MoD, however, actively encourages public access to its land where it is not in conflict with its primary use.

8.7.2 SIGNIFICANCE FOR THE STRATEGY

The MoD occupies land and property solely to support the delivery of defence capabilities. The wide range of functions and activities that occur on the Defence Estates in Scotland have the potential to impact not just on the land, but on the marine environment as well. Examples include firing out to sea, or dredging of shipping channel into a military port, or the maintenance of sea defences of a low-lying coast. The MoD seeks to manage the estate sustainably and to the highest practicable standards.

In so far as Scotland's coast is concerned, military presence and activity can have positive, benign or negative impacts. Due to the nature of the MoD's core business, it is not always possible to neutralise all negative effects. Nevertheless it is MoD policy to reduce these wherever practical and to take account of external stakeholder concerns as part of that process. The three major air bases located on the Moray coast and the Tay estuary conspire against open access for health and safety reasons. This is equally applicable to Naval Establishments and Storage Depots. The balance of the estate is, however, open for public access whenever it is not being used for training purposes and public safety is not compromised. The coastal backdrop to all MoD establishments, serves to provide a safety buffer zone for any live firing activity, ammunition storage or in-it-self forms part of ranges where the test and evaluation (T&E) of military hardware takes place. This activity can preclude marine access while in use. Many of these sites are now significant for their environmental and landscape considerations partly due to the nature of the MoD use and the consequential access restrictions that apply. Many of these nationally (and internationally) important designations on the MoD estate might not have been possible but for the presence of the MoD and its careful management. Noise insulation grant schemes are an example of the MoD's commitment to reducing negative effects on local communities.

The MoD is an important employer in the region, particularly for the local communities where bases are located. Independent research on the impact of the Royal Navy in Scotland shows that it provides nearly 16000 Full Time Equivalent jobs; 85 million is spent on supplies in the country; Clyde Naval Base generates 9100 jobs in Dumbartonshire (equals 11% of all FTE jobs in the area) and supports 2150 jobs in the community. An estimated 1350 jobs are also linked to suppliers and contractors. Unfortunately there is no equivalent research for the Army and RAF although the Army employs a similar number of people widely spread throughout Scotland and the RAF employs approximately one-third of this number at its three main bases.

As the sustainable development agenda is growing in prominence, the MoD is increasingly incorporating sustainability objectives into its estates activities. It is MoD policy to carry out an environmental policy appraisal of all new or revised policies and of equipment acquisition programmes, and also environmental impact assessments of all new project and activities. MoD's coastal development is consulted on through the planning process and is committed to mirroring the planning process (unless in extremism).

MoD stewardship of its sites, in terms of nature conservation, is demonstrated by reference to the number of Natura designations they support and the responsibility that MoD has as owners to maintain them. The MoD's commitment to biodiversity sees it involved in projects such as Operation AUK at Cape Wrath and the annual MoD bird count. The publication Walks on MoD land demonstrates a positive commitment to open access and, as responsible tenants, the MoD funds were committed to meet the cost of restoration of part of the World Heritage site of St Kilda.

8.7.3 KEY ISSUES

• The most obvious impact of MoD's presence along the coastal strip is its effect upon public access.

• Test and Evaluation of military systems in the environment, eg weapon systems.

• Impact of noise levels from military activity, eg low-flying near coastal communities or sonar disturbance to marine wildlife.

• Derelict military wrecks, remains or sites around the coastline (some of possible cultural value).

8.7.4 APPROPRIATE MANAGEMENT MECHANISMS

• Apply all environmental legislation where appropriate, or where exemptions or derogations exist, to develop, where possible, appropriate standards or mechanisms at least as good as those required by legislation.

• Liaison mechanisms with internal and external stakeholders at a variety of levels from national to local, including Declarations of Intent with statutory bodies, and a Memorandum of Understanding with the Scottish Executive.

• At MoD sites with significant biodiversity or designated site interest, it is MoD policy to establish a Conservation Group comprising various experts and stakeholders to advise the MoD on the conservation management of the site. Wide and appropriate stakeholder involvement at these sites is encouraged.

• Undertake environmental impact assessments and sustainability appraisals for new equipment and activities in both the marine and terrestrial environments. The MoD will continue to develop its management and assessment processes to implement these.

• Roll out across the defence estate the corporate Environmental Management System, and a programme of Integrated Rural Management Planning, to meet the greening Government objectives. This programme will be to meet the stipulated timeframes.

• Coastal management plans are an integral component of the EMS and will be included for relevant sites.

8.7.5 STEPS/ACTIONS NEEDED TO ESTABLISH MECHANISMS

• Continue to develop effective liaison with other stakeholders through appropriate fora and mechanisms, including bilateral meetings, stakeholder conferences, and involvement in appropriate local coastal management partnership organisations, etc. to address issues of concern and partnership working.

• Continue the work of local MoD Conservation Groups. Review performance and role of Conservation Groups to improve performance and effectiveness.

• Continue sustainability appraisals and environmental impact assessments into the impacts of new military equipment and activities on the environment and other stakeholder interests.

• The MoD should continue to develop component plans for coastal issues at relevant sites.

• Review operating procedures as necessary to ensure compliance with appropriate environmental legislation and guidance.

8.7.6 DATA/GIS NEEDS

• The MoD controls the information required for own needs. Opportunities exist for exploring data sharing.

• Continue assessing and monitoring impacts of new equipment, activities and developments on marine and coastal habitats and species.

8.7.7 FRAMEWORK FOR MONITORING PROGRESS

• Coverage of approved integrated coastal zone plans with a military element.

• Achievement of key performance indicators, developed with stakeholder input in the MoD Estate Strategy "In Trust and On Trust", and reported on in the MoD's annual Stewardship Report.

• Achievement of sustainability targets identified through sustainable Development in Government.

8.7.8 RELEVANT PLANS AND STRATEGIES

• NPPG 13 - Coastal Planning.

• MoD site development plans (eg Cape Wrath).

• MoD Integrated Rural Management Plans.

• MoD Sustainable Development Strategy.

• Local Planning Authority Local plans.

• SAC management schemes and SSSI management plans.

• Military Remains Act.

8.7.9 LINKS TO CROSS-CUTTING THEMES/OBJECTIVES

• The need to work with natural processes in the development and management of MoD sites.

• Continue to encourage and develop effective and appropriate stakeholder participation at all levels.

8.8 OIL AND GAS

8.8.1 GEOGRAPHIC FOCUS

The production areas (over 100 fields) around Scotland are in the central North Sea basin (east of Scotland, discovered in 1973), the northern North Sea (east of Shetland, discovered in 1972) and the North Atlantic Ocean (west of Shetland, started in late 1990s). The majority are well outside the 12-mile territorial sea limit, except the Beatrice Field, which is at about 12 miles. There is potential for further development within 12 miles in the Moray Firth area.

Hydrocarbons are exported to land via pipelines to Orkney (oil from central North Sea), to Shetland (oil from east and west of Shetland), to Nigg (oil from outer Moray Firth), to Cruden Bay (oil from central North Sea) and to St Fergus (gas from central and northern North Sea). Gas is also pumped from fields west of Shetland to enhance oil recovery in the Magnus Field (most northerly field in UK) to the east; a concept developed in 2000.

The receiving terminals, with associated export facilities, are located mainly on the east coast at Sullom Voe (Shetland), Flotta (Orkney), Nigg, St Fergus, Mossmorran (set back from the coast but with its jetties at Braefoot Bay) and Grangemouth (with jetties at Hound Point). Finnart deep-water terminal is in Loch Long on the west coast and connected by pipeline to Grangemouth. A limited number of ship-to-ship operations are undertaken at Scapa Flow and Nigg.

Two pipelines export gas to Northern Ireland across the North Channel, with landing points in south west Scotland.

Platform construction yards have now been rationalised since the peak of activity. Yards remain open on the East coast at Nigg and Invergordon, predominantly for maintenance. Previous yards at Ardersier and Loch Kishorn have closed, whereas Arnish and Methil have diversified into renewable energy plant construction and Hunterston is looking for a role in decommissioning. Pipeline construction (with associated launch facilities over the foreshore) continue at Wick and Evanton.

The oil industry support services and bases are centred on the East coast at Aberdeen (recognised as the oil industry capital of Europe), Peterhead and Lerwick with back-up from Dundee and Montrose. The Scottish institutions of Aberdeen University, Robert Gordon University and Heriot-Watt have also become internationally renowned centres of expertise in oil industry education and training.

8.8.2 SIGNIFICANCE FOR THE STRATEGY

The industry contributes about 85% towards the UK's total primary energy production and supports 6% of total employment in Scotland. It is important to Scotland and the whole country has been influenced to some extent by the industry but particularly where activity has been geographically concentrated.

The oil and gas industry has integrated coastal interests into its operations since the inception of sector activities. It has played a significant role in the development of Scotland's coast and coastal economy despite all development activity (so far) being beyond the 12-mile limit. Indeed, the industry was the catalyst for the first coastal planning guidelines in 1974. The legacy of the first 30 years is an infrastructure of ports, terminals, pipelines and yards. The potential of this may be maximised as the industry matures and seeks diversification through new offshore opportunities of renewable energy production and the decommissioning of oil installations. The changing face of the industry over the next 25 years, the potential for impacts from ongoing operations especially as new technology is used to exploit marginal fields, and the increased awareness for managing our valuable coast, means that integration with other coastal users remains as important today as it has ever been.

In addressing the issue of aging oil and gas fields, the aim is to improve production from mature and marginal fields and from fallow blocks, with limited possibility of new fields (some possibly inside 12 miles). Overall a decline in production is envisaged, mainly due to falling gas production. As the portfolio ages further, decommissioning will intensify. To date, most installations have been removed to shore or re-used. Innovative solutions will be required for dealing with larger structures (>10,000 tonnes). Recent changes to the fiscal regime have assisted the industry's aim of extending the longevity and competitive viability of the industry particularly from currently uneconomic fields. There is also a requirement to preserve the infrastructure for potential transfer of imported Norwegian gas to the UK. More jobs are envisaged in the industry's information technology, drilling and sub-sea wellhead construction sectors.

The industry's aim is to keep a high profile in the energy sector, to assist with UK obligations to cut CO ₂ emissions by 60% by 2050 and assist in providing 10% of energy from renewable sources by 2010. Some construction yards are diversifying, finding new business in producing renewable energy equipment although the longevity of such work is uncertain. Similarly, the offshore infrastructure may have its life extended through use for renewable energy production and feasibility studies are underway. There are potential plans for a wind farm in the Beatrice Field area.

The oil and gas industry has a long track record of undertaking environmental impact assessment before it was a statutory requirement and environmental awareness has increased continually. This is illustrated by the nomination of Yell Sound and Sullom Voe as candidate SACs, in spite of operations at Sullom Voe Terminal. Nevertheless, there will soon be offshore SACs and probably SPAs with which the industry will need to integrate its activities. The introduction of the European Directive on Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) has begun with the assessment of oil and gas exploration licence blocks providing the first examples of the application of SEA in the UK.

8.8.3 KEY ISSUES

The main issues are:

• Aging oil and gas fields.

• Need for the industry to pursue diversification.

• Maintaining sector viability.

• Increasing environmental safeguards.

Other related issues are:

• Managing the use of coastal sites and effect on employment as the industry diversifies.

• Possible impacts of an increase in coastal ship-to-ship transfers.

• Complex permission process for developments that cross the coastal boundary.

• No international guidelines for the decommissioning of disused pipelines.

• Dealing with produced water and accumulated drill cuttings.

• Communication with inshore/coastal fishing in the absence of a single representative body.

• Landward licensing regime covering large areas of inshore waters (within "closing lines").

8.8.4 APPROPRIATE MANAGEMENT MECHANISMS

• Use of Strategic Environmental Assessment and a strategic approach to environmental management, eg AFEN.

• Integrated coastal zone plans at the local level to include the management issues of oil and gas industry facilities. Involvement by oil industry should be encouraged.

• High level and local partnerships between industry, government and other stakeholders (eg PILOT, AFEN, Government and industry Forum, NSDG, AFEF, UK Offshore Forum, Fisheries and Offshore Oil Consultative Group, SOTEAG) to discuss current and emerging issues.

• Specific liaison arrangements with sectors, eg offshore fisheries (UKOOA sub committee) and shipping (Oil Companies International Marine Forum).

• Identify opportunities for data sharing.

• Potential for more dialogue with renewable sector, aquaculture as it moves offshore and tourism sector.

• Oil spill contingency plans.

8.8.5 STEPS/ACTIONS NEEDED TO ESTABLISH MECHANISMS

• Establish a Scottish Energy Institute by the Scottish Executive to allow better co-operation between industry and research bodies to strengthen the diversification strategies.

• Establish mechanisms for sharing best practice - UKOOA committed to this.

• Further improve environmental performance through technological developments, wider adoption of environmental management systems, a training framework and support in the development of surveys with other stakeholders.

• Establish a way of safe disposal of drilling fluid and (new and old) cuttings.

• Maintain existing liaison arrangements.

• SCF to assist industry to identify cross-sector partnership opportunities at the local and strategic levels.

• Continual review of "Striking a Balance".

• Continue the SEA process and review its effectiveness.

• Continue the development of oil spill contingency plans and to ensure all stakeholders learn as much as possible from each exercise undertaken to test contingency plans.

8.8.6 DATA/GIS NEEDS

• UKOOA participates in an Electronic Charting Project to include information to allow safe navigation.

• AFEN can be used as a data source.

• Strategic Environmental Assessments available on the web.

• Industry will require additional information, reliable, collated and to a common standard, as spatial planning and cumulative impact issues become prominent.

8.8.7 FRAMEWORK FOR MONITORING PROGRESS

• Trends in Environmental Emissions Management Systems (EEMS) database of discharges, emissions and other wastes.

• Trends in the percentage of installations reused/removed

• Change of use of construction yards and installation production facilities.

• Measurements of interactions with other sectors, eg number of claims by fishermen through the Fishermen's Compensation Fund.

8.8.8 RELEVANT PLANS AND STRATEGIES

• NPPG 13 - Coastal Planning and PAN 53 - Classifying the coast for planning purposes. Gives broad guidelines as to location of development but its effectiveness is difficult to assess since little oil and gas development has taken place since the guidance produced.

• NPPG 4 - Land for Mineral Working - gives guidance for onshore production.

• The aims of PILOT and the Government and Industry Forum.

• Work of the OSPAR Commission and OSPAR Decision 98/3 on the Disposal of disused offshore installations.

• IMO guidelines and standards for the removal of offshore installations and structures on the continental shelf and in the EEZ 1989.

• "Striking a balance" - UKOOA's sustainable development strategy that addresses corporate social responsibility.

8.8.9 LINKS TO CROSS-CUTTING THEMES/OBJECTIVES

• A Strategic approach is required for the environmental management of the resource.

• Integrated management with other sea users and effective use of partnerships.

8.9 PORTS AND MARINE TRANSPORTATION

8.9.1 GEOGRAPHICAL FOCUS

Two ports in Scotland, Forth and Sullom Voe, feature in the top five UK ports measured by tonnage throughput. Sullom Voe is the largest port for oil and gas traffic in the UK and was specifically developed for this purpose. The Forth has a long association with BP through the refinery at Grangemouth but the construction of the Hound Point Terminal for the export of BP's Forties Crude thrust the port into the top echelon.

On the West coast, the Clyde remains a major port but its fortunes declined dramatically in the period 1965-80 mainly as a result of the change in the UK's trading patterns following entry into the EEC. Bulk cargoes through Hunterston and oil shipped through BP's Finnart Terminal now contribute a large percentage of the port's throughput.

Apart from the Clyde, Ayr and the ferry ports there are no other ports of any significance on the West coast. A notable exception is the "super quarry" at Glensanda, which is not a port in the true sense of the word.

There are a number of ports of varying size and importance situated on Scotland's East coast and the Northern Isles, apart from the Forth which is mentioned above. All of these contribute towards local and national trading patterns.

In particular, Aberdeen and Peterhead dominate the oil service industry with very large movements of vessels employed in this sector. Despite the fact that many oil and gas fields are now considerable distances from these ports, they have retained their premier position.

Scottish ports dominate the UK's principal fishing ports with Peterhead being by far the most important port for fish landings in the country. Recent moves to reduce the Scottish fleet may have a detrimental effect upon these ports and the related land-based activities.

The Forth, Clyde and Tay estuaries all play host to significant road and, for the Forth and Tay, rail bridge crossings. The Isle of Skye is also now connected to mainland Scotland by a road bridge connection at Kyle of Lochalsh. The Forth Bridges are also a world famous tourist attraction. Away from the central belt and East coast, Scotland's mountainous terrain means that much of the road and rail network is sited, by necessity, on narrow coastal plains. In the Western and Northern Isles, rock causeways are a significant feature of the road network, linking islands and communities where, previously, ferry crossings were required.

8.9.2 SIGNIFICANCE FOR THE STRATEGY

Shipping moves over 80% of the world's commodities and transfers approximately 3 to 5 billion tonnes of ballast water internationally each year. Whilst ballast water is absolutely essential to the safe and efficient operation of modern shipping, providing balance and stability to un-laden ships, it may also pose a serious ecological, economic and health threat when this ballast water contains marine life.

The estuarial ports have statutory control over large areas of Scotland's inshore waters. Even the smaller ports are strategically situated at river mouths or in sea inlets. As such, the development of Scotland's ports must integrate into a framework, which identifies how each of the coastal activities can flourish without detriment to the others. The smaller ports and harbours whilst not featuring in national statistics have a major impact upon local economies and employment. Many fishing harbours have slipways and other ship repair facilities which can be of some importance on a local basis.

The vital lifelines provided by ferry networks throughout both the mainland and the island archipelago cannot be over emphasised. The strategy must ensure that ferry services and the related port structure are viewed as being of critical importance to coastal communities.

Port activities often require the expansion of quays and working areas through land reclamation.

Furthermore, the increasing size of ships, particularly container ships, may necessitate dredging to improve the depths of approach channels. These activities may clash with the environmental aspirations for the area in question. Land claim is traditionally how many ports have expanded, especially where ports have developed in the centre of coastal towns. It is important that ports retain the flexibility to expand and assessing the need for land claim should be included as an option. However land claim may have a detrimental effect upon nature conservation and/or coastal defence. In the latter case, ports' protecting structures usually form a substantial area of coastal defence and in some cases the loss of such defences following the closure of a port or harbour has led to advanced coastal erosion. Large-scale reclamation however, can effect tidal flows and wave movement and as such cause increased erosion some distance from the reclamation site. It is important, therefore, that careful modelling takes place prior to any large-scale reclamation. There are also the possible effects of sea-level change that need to be considered. With regard to nature conservation, many ports are situated in close proximity to SPAs and SACs and as such cannot extend their operating areas without due legal procedures. Outwith such areas, environmental assessments should take place prior to any land claim developments.

The strategy should identify how the economic development of ports recognises the requirement for environmental protection. In doing so the strategy should recognise that in many cases, port installations and in particular reclaimed areas have often become a protected haven for wildlife. Although national planning for ports has not been Government policy for many years, the strategy should consider the existing ports and facilities within Scotland and make recommendations regarding development. Such recommendations must take account of the changing nature of sea transport.

In planning and constructing causeways to connect island groups, a careful balance needs to be sought between the clear benefits to local communities and economies and the long-term environmental effects of causeways. In particular, designs and locations would be preferable that do not exacerbate the long-term coastal erosion problems of many island coasts.

8.9.3 KEY ISSUES

The 1° strategic issues are:

• Implementing current voluntary UK ballast water management guidelines to assist in the reduction of transfer of harmful organisms in ships ballast water.

• Balancing the development and operational needs of ports with strong environmental legislation; in particular the granting of dredging disposal licences - the creation of SACs and SPAs means that the granting of dredged disposal licences is becoming more complex with more layers of consultation. The ability to dredge and dispose of the spoil cost effectively is absolutely essential for a large number of ports in Scotland.

• The flexibility to expand.

• A requirement for dependable scientific data on the dynamics of the coast - the Review of Marine Nature Conservation is being carefully monitored as its recommendations may result in a new marine designation. Similarly, the National Parks (Scotland) Act 2000 makes provision for Marine and Coastal parks that could possibly impact on ports. It is essential therefore that the effects of ports and shipping on the marine and coastal environment are known and properly assessed.

• The need to ensure the government and other agencies work together to co-ordinate the multiplicity of coastal plans.

• The need to maintain transport links to fragile coastal communities.

• The need to provide employment within small ports and harbours.

• Utilisation of modern tracking systems, eg AIS to monitor the movement of specific vessels in sensitive areas.

Related issues are:

• the effect of climate change and sea level rise on ports;

• the potential for an expansion of the recreation/ leisure side of ports.

8.9.4 APPROPRIATE MANAGEMENT MECHANISMS

Priority elements of a coastal management framework to deal with proposals for ports and harbours are:

• Allowing ports the flexibility to decide their own structures in response to their own markets without central direction. As stated earlier, central directive for ports has not been government policy for many years accordingly ports have developed to meet their own particular requirements. The current mechanisms for proceeding with port developments are long and difficult and as such may often inhibit a port's speedy response to a customer's requirement. A coastal management framework is required to improve this situation. In particular the development of existing port facilities to accommodate new developments should be encouraged. The proposal for container parts at the current ports of Hunterston and Flotta may highlight this form of development.

• In terms of integration with other sectors, ports are willing to play their part in the structures that are in place to deliver ICZM.

• As shipping reflects economic demand and supply, ports and shipping interests are likely to develop in tandem.

• The use of "Eco Ports" to carry out environmental self-diagnosis.

8.9.5 STEPS/ACTIONS NEEDED TO ESTABLISH MECHANISMS

• Establish a framework to identify how all activities can integrate within coastal zones.

• Establish a system of sharing appropriate research and development.

• Ensure recognition is given to economic development as well as environmental protection.

• Ensure current developments on draft IMO ballast water convention are given due weighting in terms of development plans.

8.9.6 DATA/GIS NEEDS

• Detailed hydrographic and hydrodynamic data for ports and coastal areas surrounding them, in particular dredging impacts and on coastal cells and estuarine management.

• Additional data on leisure craft numbers, mooring facilities and marine leisure economic benefit.

8.9.7 FRAMEWORK MONITORING PROGRESS

• Consult with stakeholders.

• Utilise ESPO environmental monitoring system.

• Provide environmental data as and when required.

8.9.8 RELEVANT PLANS AND STRATEGIES

• Port Marine Safety Code.

• Harbours Act 1964 - Harbour Revision Orders.

• Habitats Directive.

• Oil Pollution and Response Capability.

• Marine Environment High Risk Areas (MEHRAs).

• Modern Ports: A UK Policy.

• Coast Protection Act 1949.

• Food & Environmental Protection Act 1985.

• Scottish Transport Appraisal Guidance.

8.9.9 LINKS TO CROSS-CUTTING THEMES/OBJECTIVES

• Local liaison with fishermen's organisations.

• Liaison with coast protection authorities.

• Requirement to comply with National Oil Spill Contingency Plan - MCA liaison.

• Economic planning associated with fishing and aquaculture.

8.10 POWER GENERATION

8.10.1 GEOGRAPHIC FOCUS

All the major power stations using conventional technology are located on coastal or estuarine waters and, with the exception of Peterhead and Chapelcross, are in or on the fringes of the Central Belt. Development of renewable energy sources is however leading to dispersal of energy generation throughout many rural areas and in future this is likely to extend to marine areas.

In a European context, Scotland is particularly well endowed in terms of its natural wind, wave and tidal energy resources. Wind speeds and wave regimes are highest off the north-west seaboard, and tidal currents are most pronounced on the Argyll coast, the Pentland Firth and in the northern isles. North Scotland, Orkney, Shetland and the Western Isles offer considerable potential for the development of marine renewable energy, but are disadvantaged by the fact that the capacity of the high-voltage grid is limited except in the Central Belt and on the East coast. A resource assessment undertaken for the Scottish Executive in 2001 indicated a potential to generate 25 GW from offshore windfarms, 14 GW from wave farms, and 7.5 GW from tidal devices, in the seas around Scotland.

The technology of offshore wind farms is well developed, but as yet limited to relatively shallow waters. A number of types of wave energy generator are at full-scale testing stage, while tidal energy generators are at a slightly earlier prototype stage. Once these technologies are proven, a wide range of subsea locations around the coast may become feasible for energy generation. Wave and tidal generators may prove to be much less intrusive than offshore wind turbines. The environmental impacts will need to be continually assessed and the cost/benefits reviewed in comparison with other generation methods.

8.10.2 SIGNIFICANCE FOR THE STRATEGY

Scotland has a strong economic interest in capitalising on its renewable energy resource, and needs to maximise the R&D activity undertaken here as well as the manufacturing capability. Already two wind turbine manufacturing plants, at Campbeltown and Stornoway, have been opened at coastal sites based on export as well as domestic markets. While energy policy is a matter reserved to the UK Parliament, planning for renewable energy is devolved to the Scottish Executive.

Offshore energy generation may help to avoid many of the environmental concerns which surround windfarm developments on land. It can also build on Scotland's strong existing base of offshore infrastructure and engineering expertise. However, its development, particularly if the installations are large or are located close inshore, will also raise new issues. For example, the location of offshore wind farms may raise navigational issues for both commercial and recreational craft in the vicinity or affect seabirds. On the other hand, they may also create related opportunities for development of artificial reefs or no-take zones which can help to rebuild fish stocks. There will also be a need to consider the potential consequences of developing marine-based energy-generating installations for defence, nature conservation, amenity, and downstream sedimentary and hydrological processes. Development of renewable energy sources will therefore increase the need for spatial planning in the marine area to minimise conflicts of interest, particularly if pressure for this type of development becomes widespread.

8.10.3 KEY ISSUES

The 1° strategic issues are:

• identification of strategic resource areas for developing offshore power generation via renewable sources and appropriate locations on the coast for cable landfall and connection to an extended national grid.

• how to adapt the offshore oil and gas industry and its service infrastructure to develop alternative renewable energy sources and technology.

Related issues are:

• development of an appropriate consents process for energy generation projects in coastal waters;

• how to manage interactions between new energy generation projects in coastal waters and other interests to maximise the positive linkages and minimise conflicts;

• the design of new offshore energy installations to deliver multiple benefits (eg artificial reef habitats, aquaculture facilities).

8.10.4 APPROPRIATE MANAGEMENT MECHANISMS

Priority elements of a coastal management framework to deal with proposals for new power generation schemes in the marine area are:

• a centralised consents procedure for more major and distant offshore energy projects (eg beyond 12 miles) [being developed];

• a localised consents procedure (preferably under an extended statutory planning system rather than the 1989 Electricity Act) for energy generation projects on the coast and installations in inshore waters within 12 miles - to ensure that the communities affected most directly by such developments can exercise a reasonable degree of control over what happens in their coastal and marine environment;

• sector-specific locational and design guidance at national level for offshore energy developments [strategic resource assessments have been done for wind but not yet for wave and tidal; no strategic environmental assessment for marine renewables has yet been undertaken for the seas around Scotland];

• multi-sectoral ICZ plans at regional or local level to integrate renewable energy developments in inshore/nearshore waters with other interests.

8.10.5 STEPS/ACTIONS NEEDED TO ESTABLISH MECHANISMS

• DTI/Scottish Executive task group to identify strategic resource areas within Scotland's coastal zone for the different types of marine renewable energy and to conduct Strategic Environmental Assessments for these;

• review of offshore consents procedure [being done by DTI but input from the Scottish Executive on this and the balance of views amongst its consultees are not yet clear];

• inter-agency task group to develop locational and design guidance for wave and tidal power generation schemes and design guidance for offshore wind farms;

• pilot projects to develop and trial ICZ plans in selected areas.

8.10.6 DATA/GIS NEEDS

• Fishing pressure activity maps from the FRS Marine Lab or Scottish Fishermen's Federation - to help identify areas where there conflict with fishing interests may be more or less likely;

• info collected for and published in EIAs - this should be put in the public domain;

• Renewables Atlas currently being prepared by DTI.

8.10.7 FRAMEWORK FOR MONITORING PROGRESS

Periodic review by SCF, in conjunction with the industries concerned, of development areas, technologies and designs, CZM issues arising, development plans and strategies.

8.10.8 RELEVANT PLANS AND STRATEGIES

Future Offshore: A Strategic Framework for the Offshore Wind Industry (DTI, 2002).

8.10.9 LINKS TO CROSS-CUTTING THEMES/OBJECTIVES

• make the most of Scotland's comparative advantages in the field of natural resources;

• harness sustainable energy sources in preference to non-renewable ones;

• promote broad stakeholder involvement and partnership working in the management of marine resources;

• hierarchical system of coastal plans and strategies;

• focus resources for coastal plans where the need is greatest;

• establish ICZ plans in appropriate areas to minimise conflicts of interest.

8.11 TOURISM AND RECREATION

8.11.1 GEOGRAPHIC FOCUS

Scotland's coasts and inshore waters are amongst the most valuable in Europe for tourism and recreation - it's the richness and diversity of the coastal landscapes, scenery, wildlife and cultural heritage are integral to what makes Scotland a "big" small country with many attractions for visitors and residents alike. Key honeypot areas are the beaches in the outer parts of the Clyde, Solway, and Moray and Forth estuaries. However many quieter high quality beaches exist on the north and west coasts and islands too, some of the most remote coastal sites in Scotland are highly valued for their spectacular scenery and opportunities for tranquil escape, and many are also popular for sport and recreation. Links golf courses - many of international renown - are found around much of the lowland Scottish coast. Argyll and the main firths are also particularly important for sailing, while Tiree is renowned for windsurfing. Opportunities for sailing, surfing, sea kayaking, and sea angling, cycling, climbing, hiking and diving are widespread throughout Scotland but especially in the West Highlands, Outer Hebrides and Northern Isles. The rich natural environment and cultural heritage of many parts of the coast provide opportunities for specialist interests such as wildlife watching and exploration of local history and archaeology and one of the major tourism trends is the shift towards more short-break, activity-orientated holidays and this means growing interest in places which offer the opportunity for pursuing such activities.

8.11.2 SIGNIFICANCE FOR THE STRATEGY

Tourism is one of Scotland's most important industries generating over 4.5 billion, providing employment for 9% of the Scottish workforce overall and 13% in the Highlands and Islands in 2001. Surveys have found that a large proportion of tourists to Scotland are attracted by the environment, scenery and recreational opportunities (especially walking). Coastal and marine tourism is an important and integral part of the overall package which Scotland has to offer and it sustains many small businesses and remote rural and island communities. However, in order to maximise the social and economic benefits of tourism and recreation, there needs to be a strong emphasis on quality: both in terms of the services provided, and in safeguarding the environment on which so much of the industry depends. Many factors which can influence this quality are beyond the sector's control, highlighting the need for a strategic and co-ordinated approach to planning and management of the coastal zone.

8.11.3 KEY ISSUES

• Lack of integrated and strategic consideration of recreation on the coast.

• The varied quality of tourist infrastructure, interpretation facilities and transport links - poor facilities can limit or undermine the quality of visitor experience and reduce ability to compete in the international market.

• Conflicts of interest which can arise between different recreational uses (eg motorised watersports affecting angling or bird watching) and between recreation and other uses (eg pressures from fish farm and wind farm development projects on coastal landscapes, public access to the shoreline, or navigation).

• The importance of a high quality, natural environment to sustain tourism and recreational uses. Vulnerability of coastal zone to oil spills and pollution; loss of recreation amenity through inappropriate development, etc.

• Lack of funding - for the development (and especially the maintenance) of facilities.

• The impact (or perceived impact) of climate change and sea-level rise on beaches and recreation facilities close to the shore) - this can sometimes lead to demands for unsustainable coastal defences.

The lack of strategic consideration given to recreation on the coast is a concern. Conflicts between recreation and other uses of the coast and inshore waters tend to be localised, but are likely to increase as pressure to exploit inshore waters for commercial purposes intensifies and water-based recreation grows in popularity. The main issues relate to loss of access to the coast or recreational anchorages, pollution of beaches and coastal waters, and traffic congestion. Coastal erosion and hard defences are an issue in some areas, and sea level rise could exacerbate this. Unsympathetic forms of development on the coast or near-shore zone can also affect landscape and amenity.

Supply often lags behind demand. Participation in sport and recreation is increasing generally and the range of recreational activities around the coast is getting wider. However, both the quality and quantity of facility provision is lacking - particularly in relation to footpath and cycleway routes and interpretation, although the proposed core-path plans under the Land Reform (Scotland) Act 2003 will help to address this.

8.11.4 APPROPRIATE MANAGEMENT MECHANISMS

Locations around the coast with special recreational value need to be safeguarded, and ways need to be found to positively integrate tourism and recreation with other demands and uses. Marine and Coastal National Parks could provide an important focus for visitors and at the same time provide recognition of the biological richness, yet fragility, of much of Scotland's marine heritage. New and existing development on the coast and in inshore waters should be designed and managed in such a way as to be sympathetic to the landscape. Public access for recreation should be encouraged wherever possible. Forms of waste disposal which might adversely affect recreational sites on the coast should be strictly controlled.

A broad range of tourism products has to be developed which meet the desire for a distinctive and authentic Scottish experience, and there is a need to upgrade visitor facilities, attractions and infrastructure, including public transport links to some of the remoter sites. The use of new technology can make the marine underwater world more accessible to visitors through wider use of underwater craft, remote operating vehicles (ROV) and transmission of subsea video images to onshore facilities.

• In areas where there is high recreational pressure or where recreational interests compete with large numbers of other potential uses, consider the use of positive management (zonation, temporal planning, locational guidance, protected areas, codes of conduct, etc.) to allow strategic and integrated consideration of tourism and recreation alongside other uses could be considered.

• Identify and safeguard special recreational areas and protect environmental and cultural assets. Promote these and provide appropriate access and interpretative facilities.

• Develop marketing and quality standards and disseminate these through targeted information, training programmes, best practice guidance, etc.

• Carry out well co-ordinated research and monitoring on coastal tourism and recreation, including current uses, trends, future demands and levels of satisfaction (with spatial and seasonal elements), economic benefits, and audits of existing facilities.

• Lobby for high level support and secure long-term funding to develop sustainable and high quality products and services.

• Raise awareness of the importance of working with natural dynamic processes (eg consider the sustainability of hard defences for eroding golf courses, etc.).

8.11.5 STEPS/ACTIONS NEEDED TO ESTABLISH MECHANISMS

• Identify areas where positive management would be an appropriate means to resolve recreation-related conflicts and develop and trial appropriate mechanisms.

• Develop criteria to identify and safeguard the most important ("special") areas for recreation and apply these around Scotland to recognise key sites.

• Identify suitable locations to develop national-level facilities for specific activities.

• Promote innovative techniques for interpretation to enhance visitor experience.

• Promote sustainable tourism by raising awareness of best practice, developing awards, training and accreditation schemes, developing sustainable transport systems, etc.

• Promote responsible recreational use through education, awareness raising, codes of conduct, etc. The Scottish Outdoor Access Code is an example of this.

• Funding - for the development (and especially the maintenance) of facilities.

8.11.6 DATA/GIS NEEDS

More research is required on patterns of recreation, user requirements and satisfaction levels economic impacts etc to provide finer-grained information for policy-making purposes and to reduce the reliance on a small number of nation-wide sample surveys:

• levels of demand and usage for coastal recreational and tourism sites and facilities data - data and mapping;

• visitor and operator attitude and awareness surveys;

• data on trends (social, economical, political, etc.) to inform development of tourism in coastal areas.

8.11.7 FRAMEWORK FOR MONITORING PROGRESS

• Membership numbers of Wild Scotland, Dolphin Space Programme, Scottish Marine Wildlife Operators Association and Green Business Scheme.

• Number of beaches achieving accredited status, eg Blue Flag or Seaside Award.

• Percentage of visitor attractions accessible by public transport.

• Percentage of visitors satisfied with and ready to recommend to others a visit to Scotland's coastal and marine areas.

• Levels of awareness of coastal and marine features amongst visitors to sites with interpretation.

8.11.8 RELEVANT PLANS AND STRATEGIES

• Area Tourism Strategies (produced by each Area Tourist Board).

• Tourism Framework for Action 2002-2005 (Scottish Executive, 2000) - national vision.

• Local authority Core Path network plans.

• Sport 21 2003-2007 (National strategy for sport).

• Earth, Wind & Water (SportScotland).

• Enjoying the Outdoors (SNH).

• A range of NPPGs, PANs, SPPs refer to sport, recreation and coastal issues.

8.11.9 LINKS TO CROSS-CUTTING THEMES/OBJECTIVES

1. Need for a more strategic approach to coastal management.

2. Closer integration of sectoral strategies and policies at a national level.

3. Promote greater awareness of the value of Scotland's coastal resources - a common objective shared with Clean Coast Scotland.

4. Take into account and plan for the effects of climate change.

5. Ensure recognition is given to economic development as well as environmental protection.

6. Secure better integrated research, monitoring and evaluation for Scotland's coast.

7. Ensure future development and promotion of beach awards in Scotland through organisations such as Keep Scotland Beautiful and Clean Coast Scotland.

8.12 WATER QUALITY

8.12.1 GEOGRAPHIC FOCUS

Much of Scotland's coastal waters and estuaries have excellent or good water quality as measured by SEPA and the National Marine Monitoring Plan (NMMP). Increasingly tight legislative control and large investments in improved treatment facilities have led to greatly improved water quality in the Forth and Clyde estuaries over the last 25 years. There remain small areas of polluted waters in the Forth and Clyde estuaries and some associated tidal tributaries. In addition, the Ythan Estuary, north of Aberdeen, has suffered ecological impacts from nitrogen enrichment delivered to the estuary in river water, principally from diffuse agricultural sources.

Despite the general trend in improvement in the bacteriological quality of Scotland's bathing waters over the past few years, there remain long-term problems with some bathing waters, particularly on the West coast, in Ayrshire and Argyll.

Reports for the NMMP indicate that sediments in the Clyde are contaminated with polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and both the Forth and Clyde have sediments contaminated with pesticide residues. In general, the estuarine sites monitored for the NMMP contain higher concentrations of trace organic contaminants than offshore sites. Most recent data indicate that the phenomenon of imposex in dog whelks, arising from exposure to anti-fouling paint used on ships, still occurs throughout the North Sea and other Scottish waters. The lowest levels were recorded at Loch Ewe, with extremely high levels in Montrose Basin.

Scotland had the highest percentage of sewage-related debris of all areas in the UK in the 2000 Beachwatch survey. Atlantic coasts had a considerably greater density of litter items (items/km) than North Sea coasts, and the value for Atlantic coasts has increased year-on-year since 1996.

Exploration and development of oil and gas reserves, in the North Sea and more latterly on the Atlantic shelf off North-west Scotland, and associated facilities for receiving oil at Sullom Voe in Shetland, Flotta in Orkney, Nigg Bay in the Cromarty Firth and in the Firth of Forth, have increased the risk of both spills and chronic water pollution.

Around the nuclear licensed site at Dounreay, sand-sized fragments of irradiated nuclear fuel were first discovered on the foreshore in November 1983. Particles have continued to be located during monitoring by the UK Atomic Energy Authority.

8.12.2 SIGNIFICANCE FOR THE STRATEGY

Impacts on water quality can result from shipping (ballast water introductions and hull transfers) oil and gas exploration, industrial and urban waste water treatment activities, agricultural run-off, fish farming, recreation and other sectors. However, ecological integrity and the viability of marine based natural resources, maritime activities such as fishing, wider environmental health issues, and public amenity and tourism, all rely on good water quality.

Improvements in monitoring and scientific understanding of the effects of pollutants have had a significant impact on water quality over time, as has improved public and political awareness of the effects of disposal in riverine, coastal and marine environments. There is not a unified monitoring and reporting system that provides a comprehensive overview of water quality of all major drivers of water quality. There are, however, many sources of data, and existing and emerging policy areas, such as OSPAR and the Water Framework Directive, are driving more co-ordinated and focused monitoring of water quality in Scottish waters. More emphasis should be placed on the developing work on ballast water management and the adoption of the IMO Diplomatic Conference on the International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships' Ballast Water and Sediments is a significant step towards safeguarding the biodiversity of the oceans. Implementing the requirements will help prevent the potentially devastating effects of the spread of harmful aquatic organisms by ships.

8.12.3 KEY ISSUES

• Although only 0.5-0.7% of the coastline was classified as Seriously Polluted, (1996-2000), aesthetic impacts from sewage and non-sewage related litter are the primary reasons for waters being classified as polluted.

• A failure to meet bacteriological standards, primarily due to discharges of sewage effluent, is the second most significant cause of less-than-good water quality.

• In the absence of mechanisms to secure improvements, diffuse pollution sources, principally nutrients lost from agricultural and other rural land, may become the dominant cause of downgraded estuarine waters in Scotland by 2010. As the pressure increases to expand existing marine cage fish farm sites and establish new ones, there is a need to consider water quality issues that might manifest themselves over a wider area.

• Most recent data indicate that the phenomenon of imposex in dog whelks, arising from exposure to tributyl tin (an anti-fouling paint used on ships) still occurs throughout the North Sea.

• Marine litter items on beaches continue to be a growing and significant problem, with litter from sewage-related sources, shipping and beach visitors comprising the majority of items.

• Discharges of produced water from the offshore oil and gas industry are increasing. In addition to oil, produced water also contains a range of other natural organic compounds including monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, 2- and 3-ring polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), phenols and organic acids. Total amounts of chemicals introduced from this source are projected to rise in parallel with an expected increase in the volume of produced water. There is uncertainty over the environmental effects of produced water.

• Adoption and implementation of the new IMO Convention is a significant step towards safeguarding the biodiversity of the oceans.

• Implementation of the Water Framework Directive is a significant management issue, offering a major opportunity to integrate a range of regulatory activities affecting water quality, through the establishment of large scale River Basin District Plans.

8.12.4 APPROPRIATE MANAGEMENT MECHANISMS

The following general mechanisms are required to ensure the continued protection of good water quality and improvement in areas where water quality is being impacted by human activities:

• Implementation of relevant existing Government sectoral strategies and obligations arising from European Directives and international agreements.

• Continued investment in collection and treatment facilities for sewage and industrial effluents.

• Development of new sectoral strategies or partnership approaches where these provide the most effective mechanisms for addressing specific water quality problems.

• Continued development of integrated monitoring programmes of coastal and estuarine water quality.

8.12.5 STEPS/ACTIONS NEEDED TO ESTABLISH MECHANISMS

• Ensure that the ongoing and planned programme of investment for sewage treatment and disposal continues to improve general inshore water quality and bathing water quality, targeted on problem areas.

• Linked to this, ensure full implementation of the SE Bathing Waters Strategy. A combination of the continued extensive investment in sewage treatment, sewerage system upgrades and an increased adoption of best practice by the agricultural community are required if Scotland's identified bathing waters are to achieve full compliance with existing European bathing water standards.

• Ensure that implementation of Water Framework Directive through River Basin Management Plan(s) engages fully with relevant marine stakeholders and takes appropriate account of the existing water quality objectives of existing sectoral strategies (eg bathing waters, aquaculture, agriculture, etc.), local coastal partnerships and other relevant partnerships (eg Clean Coast Scotland).

• Seek agreement and adoption of a marine litter strategy for Scotland, linked to National Offshore Plan, national voluntary partnerships, such as NALG and Clean Coast Scotland, and local coastal fora.

• Scottish Coastal Forum to promote the need for a marine and coastal eutrophication strategy/action plan for Scotland linked to OSPAR and North Sea Conference commitments, and River Basin Management Plan/NVZ requirements.

• Seek to ensure that the water quality objectives of the Scottish Coastal Strategy are appropriately and adequately represented in the UK and NGO representations to OSPAR and the North Sea Ministerial Conferences.

8.12.6 DATA/GIS NEEDS

• National Marine Monitoring Plan (NMMP) - proposed expansion of programme for monitoring of trace organic contaminants.

• Proposed expansion of NMMP nutrient monitoring - longer-term datasets, need modelling and remote sampling techniques in respect of trends in nutrients, sources of nutrients, and harmful algal blooms.

• Support continuation of the work of Fisheries Research Services and others to update modelling approaches for identifying carrying capacity and "hot-spots" where fish farming may be making a significant contribution to the nutrient budgets of sea lochs.

• More comprehensive data on the presence and effects of hormone disrupting substances in Scottish coastal and marine waters.

• Continued monitoring of TBT effects on dogwhelks to assess the extent and rate of recovery up to, and following, the proposed total ban on TBT on vessels.

• Better identification of marine litter items (may be a research need).

• WFD Scottish Monitoring Strategy - extend the monitoring strategy to include data requirements for OSPAR and other relevant international commitments on marine water quality.

• Discharges of naturally-occurring radioactive material (NORM) in produced water from oil extraction at sea.

8.12.7 FRAMEWORK FOR MONITORING PROGRESS

There is an extensive set of data collected on marine and coastal water quality by various parties, principally SEPA and the Fisheries Research Services. A proposed Scottish Monitoring Strategy for the implementation of the Water Framework Directive should ensure better co-ordinated data collection for monitoring and assessment purposes. A series of water quality indicators has been developed for the UK by the Marine Pollution Monitoring Management Group (MPMMG). This list might form the basis of a series of water quality indicators for the Strategy, with any additional indicators to address any issues of relevance to the Strategy which are absent from the MPMMG list.

8.12.8 RELEVANT PLANS AND STRATEGIES

• Forthcoming River Basin Management Plans for the Water Environment and Water Services (Scotland) Act 2003.

• Scottish Executive Bathing Waters Strategy, 2002.

• OSPAR strategies and action plans (eg OSPAR Strategy on Marine Biodiversity and Ecosystems; OSPAR Eutrophication Strategy).

• Aquaculture Area Management Agreements and Fish Farming Framework Plans.

• National Contingency Plan for Marine Pollution from Shipping and Offshore Installations.

• Harbour Authorities' and Offshore Installations' Oil Spill Contingency Plans (required under OPRC for each oil installation and pipeline).

• Clean Coast Scotland campaign (a public campaign to promote improved coastal water quality).

• Marine Conservation Society Adopt-a-Beach scheme. (Voluntary scheme to encourage the public to be involved in beach cleaning in their area).

• UK Strategy for Radioactive Discharges 2001-2020.

8.12.9 LINKS TO CROSS-CUTTING THEMES/OBJECTIVES

• Integration of water quality requirements of sectoral strategies at national level.

• Hierarchical system of coastal plans and strategies, local and regional water quality objectives feeding up.

• Incorporation of international water quality obligations (EC, OSPAR, etc.) into sectoral, regional and national strategies.

• Interactions between national strategy's water quality priorities and water environment objectives and programmes of measures to be established for river basin management plans.

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